The Clash of Civilizations?

The Clash of Civilizations? It is Samuel Huntington’s opinion that conflict in the post-Cold War world would be caused by cultural differences, conflicts amongst nations and groups of different civilizations. In today’s time, it is more common to group countries in terms of their civilization aspects, such as religion or culture, versus that of their economic systems. Huntington explained how interaction amongst the different civilizations will shape the world we live in and any conflicts will occur amongst the differences of each civilization. Huntington gives five reasons for his beliefs. The first reason is because civilizations are basic.The differences occur amongst traditions, culture, language, religion, etc. Secondly, civilizations are seeing increase interaction so people are becoming more aware of those differences. Third, economic transformation and social change are changing how people view certain civilizations from the way they may have been viewed before. Fourth, the West has caused an increase of more people being familiar of other civilizations. Fourth, the differences and characteristics of civilizations are less changeable; those of one civilization cannot simply become part of another civilization. Finally, there is an increase in economic regionalism.Similar to the second point, there is an increase interaction amongst civilizations. Trade has increased, making people dependent upon other civilizations to lead to their success. Huntington uses the Cold War as the time period where the differences between civilizations would cause conflict, replacing the differences between political or ideological boundaries. Huntington breaks the world into â€Å"major civilizations†, The West, Latin America, The Orthodox, The Eastern World, The Muslim World of the greater Middle East, The civilization of sub-Saharan Africa, â€Å"Lone† countries, and â€Å"Cleft† countries.Huntington explains how the West is a superpower compared to other civilizations and it is often reflected in global decisions, such as that of the International Monetary Fund, going in favor of the West. This allows the West to control the world, not only with their interests, but with their beliefs as well. As a result, there is conflict amongst the West and other civilizations. As we compare this article to today’s world in 2012, I believe that issues that are arising are differences in civilization beliefs.Huntington’s hypothesis, in my opinion has been proven true. For example, The West believes in equality, freedom of speech, human rights, etc. Was that not the entire purpose for entering Iraq, to eliminate the power of Saddam Hussein, who did not have any beliefs of the Western ways? The West is truly a powerhouse who believes the world should operate as they do which I do not believe will change. Civilizations have held strong in their beliefs; especially comparing The West to other civilizations, leaving te nsion amongst them.

An Indigenous understanding of Reciprocity

Reciprocity is an underlying principle expressed throughout Aboriginal societies. Outline and Illustrate the Importance of this fundamental concept In the economic, social, spiritual and political spheres of Aboriginal life (refer to reciprocity In the index to Edwards 2005). The word reciprocity's conjures up a feel good image of ‘caring and sharing' (Schwab 1995: 8). However according to Peterson (1 993: 861) there is a darker more sinister side to this word when applied to Indigenous Australians.He defines it as ‘demand sharing' rather than reciprocity and he states hat Blurter Jones (1 987: 38) labels it tolerated theft. Peterson (1993: 860) goes on to assert that little ‘giving' Is purely altruistic because the giver might simply be protecting themselves from ‘pay-back† if they do not give, or be expecting some mutual benefit. Edwards (2004:76) espouses that white Australians disregarded the reciprocity of traditional territorial rights and misunder stood the code of mutuality in social relationships.They also failed to identify the privileges and responsibilities central to Aboriginal society based on relationship and reciprocity (Edwards 2004: 24). In order to enter a discussion on reciprocity with regard to our Indigenous culture, It must be looked at on two levels. First how reciprocity Is a central principle that has pervaded Aboriginal societies for millennia and secondly the impact that reciprocity with the Western culture has had on this Indigenous community, since the advent of Colonization.The Western way generally requires the borrower to formulate a case of need, whereas the Aboriginal approach is slanted towards the giver having to explain why he cannot give (Schwab 1 995: 8). However there is an increasing recognition that mutual benefit worked better within the Indigenous community when Aboriginals were hunter gatherers than It seems to In today's welfare society. Schwab (1995: title page) leans towards this real ization in his discussion paper short titled â€Å"The Calculus of Reciprocity†, where one could interpret the meaning of ‘calculus' to be the study of changed {mathematical}.He outlines an accepted act of generations of give and take, to one that is gradually changing to take' and either delayed ‘giving back or not at all. In the past the food or other goods ere shared out until they were all gone (Schwab 1995: 3-4) but Increasingly a ‘complex yet subtle calculus Is employed on a dally basis as Individuals decide which expenses (or gifts) require immediate attention and which can be deferred' (Schwab, 1995: 15). Reciprocity influences the political climate of Aboriginal society, especially the law, which was, is now, and always will be.According to Needing, Davis and Fox (1986: 42) an Elder sums it up when he says the Aboriginal Law never changes, â€Å"always stay same† while conversely, Western law Is â€Å"always changing†. There Is an Inte rconnectedness of all things, an agelessness which bears witness that spoilt exists now, as it did before and that creation exists as an historical fact and also has present currency and will into the future. In Colonial times, the principle of reciprocity was enigmatic to the Westerners and a constant source of acrimony – politically, legally and culturally.The Aboriginal philosophy of reciprocity encompassed the idea that if the balance of life was disturbed, there must be a ‘corresponding action' to repair the Imbalance and the status quo must be preserved aboriginal life and this essay will discuss the importance of reciprocity with regard to economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of Aboriginal life, although it is difficult to compartmentalize Aboriginal society due to its complexity, as there is an overlap and interconnectedness in all things.The economy is interwoven with politics, as social life is melded with spirituality. Pre Colonially, the concept of reciprocity had ensured the survival of Indigenous Australian peoples' lifestyle as a distinct economic style for thousands of years (Sermons, H. 2005: 70). In more recent mimes, colonial interference with its autocratic removal and relocation of key individuals and whole groups resulted in virtually a complete collapse of the traditional Aboriginal economy.As hunting and gathering is no longer possible for city dwellers, the concept of reciprocity becomes even more important, from an economic point of view, due to the nature of extended families all co-habiting in one small dwelling because of mutual obligation or reciprocity. According to Smith (1991) household structure has to stretch to encompass the extra-household fiscal networks it now accommodates. One must consider the concept of reciprocity or mutual benefit to obtain an understanding of domestic expenditure patterns.To better understand the impact of reciprocity on a single family, here is an example from the Lacuna c ommunity (Wallpaper people), which is currently representative of many Aboriginal communities (Sheathe, E 2005: 151). This anecdote illustrates how (poor) Aboriginal health is indisputably linked to their economic situation and that reduced eating patterns (feast or famine Schwab 2004: 5) are encouraged by the government welfare system.Elizabeth and David are out shopping for their extended family,4 hen Emily approaches and asks for food explaining her welfare money has run out, she is given quite a large amount of food. Elizabeth explains ‘l like to shop Just before it closes, because there are fewer people here †¦ In the mornings there are too many hungry people waiting for you' (Sheathe, E 2005: 152). This means Elizabethan family will eat well for a few days and then when the food runs out (earlier than intended because she has given some away) they will have to eat sparingly, or not at all, until the next welfare payment.At the same time David has been approached by Steve to use his gun and ammunition. David is reluctant to give up his gun fearing Steve will damage it, but willingly gives ammunition. David says ‘All the time people want things from you. It is no good. ‘ Later Steve returns and gives David a very small proportion of his ‘kill' (Sheathe, E 2005: 1 53); this is representative of a refused reciprocation. Stave's exchange is small because David did not share his gun. In the case of Emily, one can assume that if she has spent her welfare money before 1 1. 5 am on the day she received it, then it is doubtful she will reciprocate Elizabethan ‘gift' NY time in the future, as Emily has demonstrated she is unable to budget within her own economy. So, while reciprocation might have worked pre-colonization, it can be seen that in the present welfare economy, it is no longer a system of reciprocation, but rather a system of using and abusing one's kin because reciprocation is seen as a ‘right' and seemingly no l onger has to be ‘repaid', however the ‘shame' involved in not paying back (especially if the person has the means) has not changed (Schwab 2004: 6).The substance abuser, or the drunkard still have to be supported by their kin but hey are an economic threat to the household and possibly provide no means of return of the traditional arrangements of reciprocity while advocating that Indigenous people accept more responsibility so a sound economic base can be rebuilt for Aboriginal Communities. Both Elizabeth and Davit's self-protectionist attitudes seem to reflect the ‘modern' interpretation of reciprocity, that it is their kin's right to take', while sadly, they conceivably no longer expect them to repay in kind.Therefore the economy of this single household is skewed by having to support the immunity in general, instead of specifically their own family. In the past this would have been balanced out by equal trade-off, from Emily and Steve (or their immediate kin) bu t now days, due to issues such as alcoholism, homelessness, lack of education and substance abuse, true reciprocity is not as ubiquitous as it once was.A displaced sense of entitlement on the part of the taker' seems to be replacing the traditional sense of reciprocity and a certain wary counting of the cost seems to be reflected in the ‘giver's' calculus where the whole concept seems to be becoming a social burden Schwab 2004: 8). Indeed, Peterson (1993) in his article ‘Demand Sharing: Reciprocity and the Pressure for Generosity among Foragers' asks the question â€Å"Why is there a positive enjoyment to share if sharing is commonly by taking rather than giving? † (p. 861).When it comes to establishing the economic basis of a family, it becomes very difficult to measure their actual income due to people moving in and out of households, but Western society dictates that families meet eligibility criteria in order to qualify for welfare. The ideology of traditional reciprocity is not taken into account ND Schwab (1995: 16) suggests that politics, or policy makers ‘accommodate rather than contravene' these monetary instabilities and the ever changing family support arrangements. Western politics or law is generally not taken on board by Aboriginal society, or if it is, it is with reluctance and resentment.With this in mind, Schwab (2004: 2) wrote his discussion paper â€Å"The Calculus of Reciprocity' to further a ‘better understanding of the principles of reciprocity in contemporary Aboriginal communities' in the hope that it would better inform government policy makers, at a local, state and national level. There are two sets of politics (law) that the Aboriginal people must abide by. On the one hand there are the Politics and Law of Australia and then there are their own laws and politics as illustrated by The Dreaming, where explicit moral lessons transmit the ideology of didactic human behavior (Schwab 2004: 3).There is outra ge in Australia at the suggestion that certain individuals seek to impose elements of Shari law, but we turn a blind eye, or have a lack of understanding of Indigenous people carrying out their version of reciprocity when it comes to breaking their own laws. Some of the punishments imposed by Aboriginal Law include, death, spearing or other forms of corporal punishment (e. G. , burning the hair from the wrongdoer's body), individual ‘dueling with spears, boomerangs or fighting sticks, shaming, public ridicule, exclusion from the community or total exclusion (Australian Law Reform Commission ND: 1).The code of reciprocity controls the mutual rights and kinship obligations of the individual and encompasses the cultural norm of ‘payback for wrongdoing (Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18). As well as an understanding that reciprocity means the sharing of tools and food, there is also a oral principle of reciprocity with its negative forms encompassing retribution and revenge (Alkali and Johnson 1999, in Burbank 2006: 7). Burbank (2006: 7) stated that be killed, then reciprocity can be satisfied by the killing of another family member as due to the intricacies of kinship they are considered one and the same.This viewpoint would be considered barbaric in Western culture and would not be tolerated. As Edwards (2004: 73) states, the person who breaks the law must serve the sentence and for another person to pay the penalty would not be Justified or even permitted in Western law. In indigenous land management, the politics of reciprocity (between Western and Indigenous) should involve knowledge and understanding but the white Australian man tries to impose his vastly different practices onto the Aboriginals who have been practicing successful land management for millennia.Disappointingly much of the thousands of years of Indigenous knowledge are often disregarded by Whitefishes' (Baker, Davies, Young, 2001: 158). To illustrate the disparity of understanding of the principles of reciprocity in Colonial times, Edwards (2004: 73) outlines the anecdote where the Elder showed he settler a waterhole and then considered it a reciprocal action to later kill a sheep for food when the settler used the waterhole to water his flock.This Aboriginal would then be dealt with by the police and the courts and he would be mystified as he could see no Justice in a system such as this where reciprocity did not play a part. In his law, laid down by The Dreaming it would be sanctioned behavior to take the sheep as pay back for food for his clan. Western politics plays a part in the downfall of the concept of reciprocity, firstly by taking away the dignity of Indigenous people ho cannot reciprocate for their welfare payments in any quantifiable way.Secondly because life has so drastically changed for the indigenous people since Colonization, they now find themselves stripped of their place and their land and instead find themselves in the undignified position of be ing passive welfare recipients. So many have fallen by the wayside and become victims of alcohol and substance abuse due to their once well organized and purposeful life being ripped away. This has made them reliant on their relatives generosity, which leaves them no self-respect and minimal fiscal, physical or emotional resources to pay back with.Therefore the notion of reciprocity as a system of checks and balances to maintain social equilibrium (Bourne and Edwards, 1998, 100, p 106. In Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18) is stymied for some. Traditionally social stability has been maintained within the Aboriginal society because reciprocity has functioned as a means of equilibrium. Reciprocity has been important throughout all social and family relationships, where a complex system of kinship lines exists. This system relies heavily on the responsible and reciprocal participation of all members from the give-and-take of tools and hunting weapons, to the sharing of food.As one Elder expla ined: â€Å"Sharing Just a way of life for Aboriginal people, probably in our genes or something. Might be left over from the old days when we were hunters and that .. . All Aboriginal people know what it's like to be hungry. We Just can't turn away someone who says he's hungry †¦ I guess white people have a hard time understanding that one† (Schwab 1991: 145), whereas Western society is built on capitalism, meaning that some of its central values are totally opposed to the tradition view of Aboriginal culture (Richardson J 2006: 144). Moieties subtle and often invisible to some (Schwab 2004: 3). Indigenous societies place emphasis on social identity and the obligations individuals have to conform to the expectations their society has mapped out for them, whereas in Western societies the emphasis is on the individual and the rights and freedoms of that individual and there is no expectation that people will conform (Edwards, 2004: 52). Almost any behavior is accepted, as long as their actions do not harm others.Aboriginals believe there is a balance within ourselves that incorporates our social lives and our spiritual lives and to integrate ourselves into the ecology and consciousness of this oral, we need to intertwine these two worlds in our daily existence (Lower 1991 : 49). The requirement of reciprocity underpins most aspects of spiritual life, including ritual, ceremony and the protection of sacred sites (Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18). If one gives to the ancestor's by way of ceremony, song, ritual and dance they reciprocate by giving the strength, power and knowledge of the spirits (Lower 1991 P: 48).Likewise if one honors the earth, the earth will reciprocate with an abundant harvest. An Aboriginal had/has a responsibility to perform the rituals that released the creative rowers that abide in the land and if these rituals are not performed, great harm could befall the land. Even today, Aboriginal land management techniques rely on understandi ng the religious links between the Indigenous peoples and the land (Baker et al 2001: 113). Western society puts its faith in science and technology, while keeping an eye on the weather, to reap the finest harvest.They do not pray or perform religious services to interact with the land. Indigenous people believe the whole environment is formed by The Dreaming, there is a sense that all things partake in the sacredness of life. For millennia, Aboriginal people have co-existed with spiritual beings in their daily life. The essence of spirituality is present throughout the material world and through a cryptic sense of time; Aboriginal People seamlessly connect with the Dreaming origins of their spiritual being (Edwards 2004: 86).Aboriginal religion is bound up in The Dreaming and dictates that responsibility consists of acting in accordance with a few moral principles. For Aboriginal people, being deprived of their land means a â€Å"deprivation of access† to The Dreaming and th e severing of a certain life-force which breaks the link with The Dreaming. It is this very real deprivation that has broken the spirit of many an Aboriginal person, leaving them empty and heartsick (Triggering 1988: xv-xvii).Aboriginal people base their claim to ownership of the land on their belief that the spiritual forces which shaped the land also created them and still inhabit this land today (Edwards: 19). Rose (2004: 42) points out that earth is the initial mother, the mother of everything. She goes on to say that all knowledge and all living beings in their diversity are ultimately born of earth. Non-indigenous Australians often countryside the significance of the land to Aboriginal people; however The Aboriginal Land Rights and Native Title movements have increased awareness of this issue.As Rose (1987) says in her article â€Å"Consciousness and Responsibility in an Australian Aboriginal Religion†, if people protect the land by burning, using the country, performin g ceremonies to increase the bounty and by protecting the dangerous Dreaming sites so that no harm escapes, the land will repay them by reciprocal relationship that ensures the continuity of life for all involved, the land, humans, animals and the plant life (peg. 262). Partaking in this exchange of life will lead to balance for the land and its inhabitants. DRP.Pollinate in â€Å"Looking after our Spirit† (Pearce, M 2012) states that we have a duty of care to engage in reciprocity with the earth and to ensure that the environment we have inherited is left in the same, if not better condition, than when we got it. This is an ideal philosophy, but unfortunately the greed of many non-indigenous ventures such as mining for minerals and gas in many traditional lands has caused an imbalance and to the eyes of the Indigenous peoples, many landscapes are now out of balance and the aim of cooperation has been pillaged.Non-indigenous ventures plunder the land and they take, but they d o not reciprocate by giving anything back, although Western conservation laws are beginning to address this situation. As this essay has demonstrated, reciprocity is an economic means of survival and the Indigenous political system is built on the presumption of reciprocity, while the Australian Judicial system has been influenced by Aboriginal philosophy. Such documents as ‘Aboriginal Customary Laws and Sentencing, Aboriginal Customary Laws and the Notion of ‘Punishment† by the Australian Law Reform Commission, (ND) and theAboriginal Bench book for Western Australia Courts (2002) by Fryer Smith have been distributed to foster an understanding of the concept of reciprocity that Aboriginal life is founded on. Society is based on complex kinship lines where reciprocity is expected and accepted but is open to exploitation as demonstrated by those abusing the passive welfare system and who no longer honor the traditional social norms. A fulfilling spiritual life revolv es around maintaining relations with the Dreaming Spirits.

Journal

Here are some of the kinds of writing I have done, In and out of school, during the past year (check all those that apply). 0 Essays about literature CLC Book reports Emails for work or to friends Journal entries Personal narratives 0 Short stories Speeches for special occasions 0 Research papers Ã'Ëœ Job applications 0 Letters for business purposes 0 Notes too teacher Summaries Persuasive essays Deflations Diary entries Descriptions 0 Songs Poems Newspaper articles 0 Letters to friends or family Ã'Ëœ Postcards 0 Thank-you notes Text messages Any others you can think of:Click here to enter text. 2. Of the items on my list, I most liked writing personal narratives and research papers because I enjoy telling personal stories and learning about new subjects. 3. I least enjoyed writing poems and speeches because writing poems isn't one of my strengths and I don't enjoy talking in front of a large group of people; especially strangers. 4. When I am given a writing assignment, I usually fo llow this process: I create a chart of my Ideas along with reasons, write a rough draft, have someone read It, I make corrections, and then I write the final draft. And overall structure. 6.I think that the area of my writing most needing work is broadening my vocabulary. 7. The types of writing that I will probably do in my college courses are persuasive, analytical, and argumentative; in my possible career, analytical and argumentative; in my personal life descriptions. 8. In the past, my experiences with writing courses have been great. 9. My writing goals for this course are to broaden my vocabulary and to learn new writing styles. 10. My thoughts and concerns as I begin this course are not knowing my grades on my papers and assignments really frightens me. Other than that, I cannot wait to begin growing as a writer. Journal Headquartered in Los Angels, California, the company offers consumers over 250 quality and affordable arsenal care products. The Product Dry. Fresh makes Bianca brand nativity fluoride toothpaste. We offer a peppermint flavor which is preferable to our target audience and offers cavity protection, fresh breath and strengthens teeth. Active ingredient is sodium nonprofessionals (0. 76%) is an nativity with a series of inactive ingredients. The Market Target market includes low income individuals, students, head of household, and elderly.The projected loss for our product in the current fiscal year is predicted $50,000 net loss. Variable costs to obtain a product and store in our warehouse is $0. 50 per unit. This variable cost cannot be reduced any further and will remain constant for the next two years regardless of volume. We have a unique advantage that our production can instantly vary to any output without increasing fixed costs or inventory costs. Our annual fixed costs are $250 ,000 annually including salaries, benefits, office supplies, warehouse space and our other product related expenses.This does not include any promotion like advertising, public relations or personal selling. Company overview Our mission is to provide innovative, high quality and affordable personal care products that exceed consumer expectations. The mission includes being the leader in the oral care category through fully understanding and addressing consumer needs. Our companies' SOOT Analysis includes our strength to offer a low price, have an effective product, and a good price to feature ratio.We offer multiple oral healthcare products which increase customer susceptibility to our product. Bianca has had previous advertising in movies, and television which help our product recognition. Our weaknesses include lack of brand recognition and are unknown, lack of features including whitening, tartar control, sensitivity and also fluoride, low promotion edged, subpart quality and we offer smaller quantities than competitors for the of our product through retailers. Company opportunities include easy sales to wholesalers because of price.We can offer to convenience stores and also vending machines to increase sales without extra cost. We also have the opportunity to advertise to dentist offices and to get support. Threats include name brand competitors, other low cost entrants, supplier power, buyer power, rivalry between other low cost competitors, and also threat of substitute products affect our business. 95% of our sales are at the price point of $1. 15 through wholesalers. The wholesalers sell to retailers, who sell our product at $1. 61 per unit.The other 5% of sales occur over the internet at $1. 49 each. We show a fixed cost of 250,000 + (. 50 per unit PVC *units). We are selling at this price and are estimated to lose $50,000 this year. In order to market this toothpaste, and achieve a goal of $50,000 profitability a year we must sell 400,000 units. In order to hit this strategic goal we must attain more market share. The overall oral healthcare market is worth 10. 9 billion. Colgate holds 52% of the overall market. HULL holds 22%. Dabber has 14% We hold . 05% with other brands with 1 1. 5%. Current market trends it indicate whitening is a strong factor in increasing sales. Market Segments We have broken our market down into the following segments: Students (Students are on tight budgets, but still need to clean their teeth effectively because their diets are typically not conducive to oral health in the first place. ) Low Income Families (Lower income families need to buy lots of toothpaste, but can't afford expensive name brands. ) Value Shoppers (Some individuals/families simply look to get the most value for their money. Each of our market segments have similar characteristics. Most of all, they are looking o get the best oral care product on a limited budget. They are typically value driven, and will buy a specific brand out of habit and convenience rather than any specific medical desires in their product. Their needs in a toothpaste include cleaning their teeth, preventing tooth decay, freshening breath, and preventing plaque and tartar build up in their mouth. Primary Target Market Our primary target market is value shoppers.Our customers in rural areas are looking for a combination of features and convenience. Customers entail value shoppers, low income shoppers, students, households, low cost value proposition. We segment through Geographic (Rural and Urban), Behavioral ( Normal use, Whitening, Complete Care), Demographic (customer type) and other methods. Company Analysis Our goals include selling the best toothpaste at the best price. Through aggressive price techniques we offer a quality product at a low price. We sell most of our product to retailers and a slim margin over the internet.Company culture includes giving employees fair chance to speak their mind and voice concerns to management. Th rough respecting catheter and fostering innovation we have been able to sell our other products very successfully. Internal strengths we have include our differentiation of products. We offer Bianca mouth freshening spray, toothbrushes, floss and other oral health products. A weakness we have internally is that we do not currently offer any whitening products, and with the current trend it is hurting our growth.Opportunities that we have include a whitening pre brush rinse solution. We also can develop mouthwash and produce different flavors of our breath freshening spray. The oral healthcare market is increasing due to people's reliance on vanity. Threats from other companies are hurting our sales due to competitor capitalization n the whitening, and feature/ luxury branding. Our low price toothpaste formula is not going to make your teeth any brighter, or remove layers of plaque that cause yellowing.Our product simply removes surface bacteria and doesn't get in deep like other com petitor products. Market share is a growing concern for us, we hold half a percent of the total market, and our competitor Colgate holds 52% of the overall market. We have a lot of room for growth inside our current market and huge incentives. Overall we are going to suffer a loss this quarter. We are going through some changes currently in our marketing ND management staff and are predicting a rise next year. We have more than adequate production methods and inventory warehousing.We anticipate being able to handle sales at a much higher volume. We are coming up with a new marketing scheme to make our product more appealing to our target market. We need to think creatively and bring in some fresh ideas and interns. Stock pence 2. 50 BASE (August 1st 2013) Competitor Analysis Our top three competitors are The Procter and Gamble Company Philips Oral Healthcare Inc I. Market position The consumer product conglomerate focused on toothpaste, toothbrushes and other oral care products. The position of the quality toothpaste could be niche or mainstream.The decision to position the new toothpaste on retail shelves is another important aspect of our sales positioning. Colgate toothpaste places the toothpaste in between one of the existing products and a competitor's product. It. Strengths – Colgate Optic white and Colgate sensitive pro- Relief toothpastes and the re launch of Colgate total toothpaste contributed to their strength in the oral care market. – Collage's strength in manual toothbrushes also continued in the U. S, driven by the success of Colgate 360 degree optic white, Colgate 360 degree Sensitive Pro- Relief ND Colgate 360 degree Surround. ‘. Weaknesses Colgate brand directly compete with P Oral-B company toothpastes which are globally known for their high functional properties, including sensitivity and teeth whitening. The company also increased its advertising expenditures by 31% in the two quarters of 2013. It has resulted in an ove rall market share gain in toothpaste and has growth from 52% in 2012 to 56% presently. Colgate has to worry about the innovative new products that could compete with their current quality toothpaste. Iii.Market Shares Colgate has been able to stay ahead of the market; it has one of the widest networks, caching 4. 5 million retail outlets in India. Collage's sustained distribution strength, coupled with product innovation and creation of sub-categories such as mouthwash and sensitive oral care have helped it drive growth aggressively. They are always coming up with new ideas to push the barrier and capture new market shares. Promoting healthier lives, improving community oral health care, expanding their current â€Å"Bright Smile, Bright Futures† program all ATA low cost.They ensure that ingredients continue to meet safety, quality and environmental compliance and biodegradability. They have also been environmentally responsible through educing the environmental impact of Col gate products and packages by 20% increasing the use of sustainable materials and recycled content. Value Chain Partners Supply chain partners consist of primarily a manufacturing company (Dry. Fresh) in India. The factory produces the toothpaste, packages the paste into tubes, and seals and prints the tubes and boxes the final product.Large shipments leave the factory by means of distribution. A distributor moves the product from the factory to Wholesalers Warehouses Shipping yards Wholesaler's mark up the product and sell the product in bulk to tillers. Wholesalers are responsible for distribution of the product after they purchase the product from the factory. Warehouses store the product until demand for the toothpaste is reached. At this point the product is removed and sold to different partners Shipping yards are usually located where a sea port meets a railroad.The trucks can drop off product for easy transportation over 1) ocean through massive commercial ships and 2) railw ay where trains transport goods efficiently 3) Trucks drop off their trailers and are easily navigated to new locations by other drivers. Once the goods are delivered to their final location it is usually at a retailer. Retailers purchase the goods from the wholesaler, offer a markup on the product and arrange the product on the shelves where it is ultimately bought by customers. When the product is sold directly over the internet a lot of the process is cut down.The internet protocol is much more simple. A supply chain partner is through the website design and maintenance teams in order to process orders and receive accurate shipping information, as well as process payment. When an order is paid for and set up for delivery, the company uses a mail company such as faded or SSP to deliver the final package to the customer. Climate Reducing global impact on the climate and environment plays an important role in associated with the manufacture and distribution of products it plays a la rge role in our manufacturing process.We try to reduce waste sent to landfills as well as request that all of our key suppliers measure and disclose the climate change information. Through the economic climate we are reducing the amount of water consumed in the manufacture and consumption of our products. Reducing the amount of water associated with our products saves a lot of money. Through working tit local and global organizations to promote access to clean water we promote water conservation awareness across the world. We reduce our environmental impact of products and packages by up to 20% by increasing the use of sustainable materials and recycled content.Social and cultural environment includes the increase of sustainability profile in our new products and in the balance of our portfolio. We ensure ingredients meet or exceed all recognized standards for safety, quality, and environmental compliance and biodegradability. Political and legal environment is included in promoting health and wellness and to reduce employee employee health risks. We have achieved a 5% reduction in costs and improvements in early diagnosis of chronic and treatable disease. We are focusing on safety to achieve the goal of zero lost time incidents.Other political impacts are the standards set to monitor our product and ensure public health. Technological environment by reducing our waste through technological upgrades we have been able to increase effectiveness and efficiency with lower waste. New methods allow for the reduction of water used in production and distributing so that we can control costs and provide the best product available. Insight driven innovation provides value added products and our marketing strategy shows that in order to ensure high standards we must have the essential technology to make it happen. Journal Proposals, persuasive messages, classroom practices Introduction: Given that students are enthusiastic about social media or even have expertise in some social media tools, the author decided to design a class project in her Writing for Careers (Business Communication) class that integrates social media in terms of content and project management.This article intends to describe such a class reject design as well as the working process; reflect on such a practice by reviewing students' feedback, examining the final products, and assessing the learning outcomes; and finally provide suggestions on how to improve this project. Methods: This article describes the project design as well as the working process and reflects on this practice by reviewing students' feedback, examining the final products, and assessing the learning outcomes.In concluding, the article provides suggestions for Improvement, Students were excited about the project because It was related to social media; however som e students were confused because they didn't understand how such a project could be related to business management. Different books, articles, websites, movies, and/or TV shows were assigned to help with the project (ex. Get Connected: The Social Networking Toolkit for Business, the Oscar-winning movie The Social Network, Conic's The Backbone Obsession, Barack Beam's Social Media Lessons for Business. Also a few articles (Tangelo, 2010: Greenland, 2010; Jones & Degree, 2011).Results: The few students who disliked social media or were very elucidate to get onto social media had an opportunity to learn something new. Those who were familiar with some social media tools learned new aspects and features. This project gave students the opportunity to practice and utilize a variety of skills: critical thinking, problem solving, audience analysis, persuasion, and document design. The process-based teaching enhanced their understanding and application of what they learned in class and also made it possible to customize the teaching. Discussion: Throughout the project several social media tools were discussed.Students were challenged to communicate not only their mastery of digital communication skills, especially social media skills, but also their understanding of the potential for using these skills in professional settings to target audience. In addition they had to demonstrate their rhetorical skills In persuading their audience in considering or adopting social media. This example of client-based, student- centered learning empowered students and increased student autonomy. Criticism: the goal of the project even after repeated instructor explanations.Their overconfidence and overestimation of their own social media skills also hindered their completion of the project satisfactorily. Instead of figuring out what the business or organization needs to communicate constantly and effectively with their customers, these students insisted on getting the opinion of the teacher or the client had to tell them what to do. These students spent time creating a profile page instead of Justifying why they had selected that particular social media tool. During the project; time was spent teaching social media tools, especially the ones students that lacked familiarity with social media. Journal The Picture for Men: Superhero or Slacker, Stefan Bach's The Fall of the Female Protagonist in Kid's Movies and Amanda Marmoset's The Shocking Radicalism of Brave all expresses a tone of opposition to the Issue of gender gap. They specifically focus on the media especially In movies and cartoons where men are most times the prevailing character and superheroes while women are helpmates and trophies to be won by them.This is an obvious trend and I indisputably agree with this resentment. Sesame Panda in his article mentions that â€Å"The attributes that are most valuable today-social intelligence, open communication, the ability to sit still and focus-are, at a minimum, not predominantly male. † (Panda, 201). He also mentions that â€Å"boys who remained close to their mothers, siblings, and peers did not act as tough or shut down emotionally.However, close relationships tit fathers encouraged greater autonomy and detachment from friendships. † This shows that the fathe rs of these boys have been brought up in a like manner and always has been a trend In the past. Society teaches girls to shrink themselves, to make themselves smaller. Girls are allowed to have ambition and aim to be successful but not too successful otherwise the men will be threatened. Does the society actually see women as a lesser Identity?If boys are taught to be tough, autonomous and stoic, what role would the girls play? Maids, perhaps. Also, Stefan Bach's article throws more light to the devastating issue of gender gap. She considers the role of female protagonists in animated children's films. Using Disney and Paxar as a case study, she fairly criticizes Disney films for being sexist and mentions that â€Å"A pretty big percentage of the female leads in Disney musicals seem to have only one goal- to get Journal Save your journal entry as a Microsoft Word file and submit it using the appropriate link in the Session 2 folder. Follow all the directions, adhere to the rules of Standard Written English, and submit by the deadline. 1 . Contrasts can evoke strong emotions and images in creative writing. Re- read Yeses Gunnysack's poem â€Å"Facing It† (page 42). Make note of the ways Communally contrasts ideas and images: white and black, night and morning stone and flesh, solid and air, movement and stasis, reality and reflection, cast and present.These contrasts create a sense of confusion and tension. Write two paragraphs of your own in which you describe a brief fictional scene that is full Of contrasts. Make the contrasts meaningful to the character in your scene. 2. A stanza is a group of lines in poetry. (Billy Collins' poem â€Å"Snow Day' on page 41 is eight five-line stanzas, for example. ) Write a poem of three-line stanzas that follows this pattern: The first line consists of a n abstraction, plus a verb, plus a place; the second line describes attire; and the third line of each Tanta summarizes an action.Let it flow. Each stanza should make sense by itself; all together the poem does not have to make absolute sense. See the examples on page 24 of Imaginative Writing. Your completed poem should be at least eight stanzas. 3. Quickly list as many clickd metaphors as you can think of: the path of life, eyes like pools, crazy as a bedbug, nose to the grindstone, and so forth. Provide the list. Then switch half a dozen of the comparisons: eyes like bedbugs, nose to the path, the grindstone of life. Then, write a brief poem (at

Enviromental Policy and Regulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enviromental Policy and Regulation - Essay Example As a means of integrating with such a question, this particular essay will analyze the extent to which the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 1976 has helped to protect the environment to which it was intended to preserve. In order to measure the underlying effectiveness of this act, the author will seek to review the determinant components of the Magnuson – Stevens Act, the subsequent amendments and bills that it has given birth to, the level to which the legislation has been able to ameliorate the issues that it set out to address, and the ultimately whether the legislation can be considered a success, failure, or partial success. Firstly, before delving into measuring whether or the legislation has helped to address the issues that it sought to integrate with, it is necessary for the student o provide a thorough overview of all of the aspects of United States fisheries and protected areas that the legislation sought to address. As such, the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 19 76 can ultimately be broken down into the following 5 component parts: Acting to conserve fishery resources Supporting enforcement of international fishing agreements Promoting fishing in line with conservation principles Providing for the implementation of fishery management plans (FMPs), which achieve optimal yield Establishing Regional Fisher Management Councils to steward fishery resources through the preparation, monitoring, and revising of plans which (A) enable stakeholders to participate in the administration of fishers and (B) consider social and economic needs of states As a function of such a broad approach, the bill can be understood to seek to identify with three functional areas of fishery conservation, 1) the international level that seeks to bring the interpretation of international fishery management in line with what the United States projected in domestic law, 2) seeking to engage in an framework for which the federal government could seek to provide a level of ov erarching conservation within the states and territories it was responsible for and finally, 3) seeking to integrate this framework with respect to the many differentiated rules that had developed within the individual states (Tromble, 2012). As with many layers of legislation that have introduced over the years, the ultimate success of the act cannot be understood in a two dimensional explanation of whether it has been effective or whether it has not been effective. Instead, the overall success and result of the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 1976 varies dependent upon the different regions and fish stocks within the United States. However, as a means of the evolving level of success, the government has been able to integrate with amendments to the bill both in 1996 and 2006; thereby the disenfranchised regions of the nation and fish stocks that were still suffering and left out of the specific rubric of the bill have been integrated with in a far more successful manner than was exhibited when the bill was first passed into law. This amendment process signifies a vital component of the legislation that ultimately bequeaths it with a far greater degree of success than it would otherwise realize (Rouch, 2012). Due to the fact that new fisheries are developed and near exhaustion on a regular basis, the bill requires that amendments must be made in order to integrate the current realities of conservation with the law that seeks to protect the component parts of the

Lessons learned Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lessons learned - Essay Example a colonel of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders as well as a deputy lieutenant of Argyllshire county and colonel of militia in the same area in his retirement. As a nurse trained to Florence Nightingale’s ideals that require commitment and service oriented attitudes in nurses, she did not like the idea of young women joining nursing without the much required dedication to it as their predecessors. According to her, a nurse only has one main function, to serve others. This attitude therefore came to be fully incorporated into the nursing profession (Andrist, Nicholas, & Wolf, 2005). However, her greatest achievement came in when she brought up the idea of having nurses registered for them to carryout their practice properly. Her main aim in this was to enhance protection of the public as well as the profession from unqualified people that may carryout their mal-practice on innocent people. Later on in 1901, she helped Dr, McGregor in grafting the Nurse’s Registration Act that was finally passed in parliament and it was first one of its kind. In this bill, nurses were expected to have three years training program, a state or national examination, and a state or national register (The Porirua Hospital Museum, n.d). After this establishment, it was felt that something should also be done for the case of midwives. There was also supposed to be some form of training for the midwives in New Zealand. It occurred that there were no schools to train them, she had to push for another bill to go through parliament for the establishment of such a school. This was a more challenging bill as it was put to her to come up with a curriculum for the midwifery training as well as establish state maternity hospitals that were to be used for the training. In this, she only had the goal of ensuring that there were hospitals for women, doctored by women, and managed by women. Later on in 1904, Richard Seddon introduced the Midwives Registration Act in parliament which was

Management Enquiry and Research Methods (MBA) Essay

Management Enquiry and Research Methods (MBA) - Essay Example These steps include data collection, analysis, presentation and validation as well as goal setting, the creation of a proposal for targeted team building efforts and the implementation of the proposal. 1. Data collection-In general data collection will be done in a confidential manner by interviewing each team member. During the interview process, it will be the aim of the researcher to identify the common sentiments of the group members and ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of the team as a whole. 4. Validation of Data-This is a very important step in that the findings need to be checked for accuracy. During this process, the data collected is relayed to the team and the team is asked for input with regards to its accuracy. 5. Goal Setting-Before a team can begin to solve its problems, it is prudent that the team identify the direction in which it intends to go. This will serve as a means of shaping and formulating the future of the company in a structured manner. 6. The Proposal-This is an integral part of any action research. During this phase, the team considers the current issues and devises a plan for their solution. Much of this phase involves discussion and focuses on accountability. 7.

HR Strategy Responding to a Union Organizing Drive Essay

HR Strategy Responding to a Union Organizing Drive - Essay Example I also have the alternative of informing the employees on the company’s position regarding the union organizing drive. I will advise the top management to establish personal contacts with the workers and report on the employee conversation. The top management will convince employees to stop signing union cards and vote against the union in case of elections. In the third scenario, I have the alternative of telling the Association to call for secret ballot elections under NLRB to allow the school board to recognize the union (Budd, 2010). I will advise the school board to establish personal contacts with the teachers and campaign against the union. The school board will be able to identify and address the teachers’ needs and convince them to vote against the union during the elections. In the fourth scenario, I have the alternative of appealing the results of elections with the NLRB. I have the alternative of giving the correct figures of the salaries for Woodville’s top executives (Budd, 2010). I will advise the top management to petition the NLRB that the misstatement by the union influenced the election outcomes. The top management will convince the NLRB to cancel the results and order for a re-election that Woodville might

Sainsbury Supermarket Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sainsbury Supermarket - Case Study Example The 2008 outlook also reports that downside risk to the outlook seems more threatening that at the time of the September 2007 outlook. This is because oil price declines since last august and generally benign global financial conditions have helped to limit spillovers from the corrections in the US housing market and to contain inflation pressures. (IMF World Economic Outlook, 2008). Thus, multinational companies must rethink their global strategies, in the phase of foreign exchange rate and falling price of oil. The present circumstances make them victims of foreign exchange risk and exposures. Against this background, the purpose of this paper is three fold. The study first of all is aimed at carrying out an analysis of the impact of foreign exchange exposure on a United Kingdom UK based retail company-Sainsbury Supermarket. In the second part of the paper, the paper analysis the impact of capital investment appraisal tools on the activities of Sainsbury group. In the third part of the paper the paper asses the impact of share valuation on Sainsbury group. The last section of the paper presents conclusion and a brief recommendation to the company's management on how to go about getting the best from foreign currency exposures. Like macroeconomic analysis the analysis of the industry i... In the third part of the paper the paper asses the impact of share valuation on Sainsbury group. The last section of the paper presents conclusion and a brief recommendation to the company's management on how to go about getting the best from foreign currency exposures. 1.1 Brief Overview of Sainsbury Supermarket Like macroeconomic analysis the analysis of the industry is important because it enables the analysts to make abnormal profits arising from information asymmetry between the proper analyst and competitors who fail to carry out a proper analysis. Just as it is difficult for a firm to do well in a poor macroeconomic environment, so too is it difficult for a firm to perform well in a troubled industry. (Bodie et al, 2002). Similarly, as performance can vary across countries, so too does it vary across industries. (Bodie et al, 2002). According to the company, (2008) report, J Sainsbury plc is a United Kingdom-based food retailer with interests in financial services. The main activities of the company are in the groceries, related retailing and financial services. According to the corporate report, J Sainsbury plc consists of 504 supermarkets and 319 convenience stores and Sainsbury's bank. Sainsbury's Online is the Company's Internet-based home delivery shopping service, which operates from 97 stores. Bells Stores operates a chain of 54 convenience stores in north east England. Jackson's Stores operates a chain of 114 stores across Yorkshire and the North Midlands in the United Kingdom. Sainsbury's Bank, owned by J Sainsbury plc and HBOS plc group, offers a range of products, including savings and loan products. The Company's businesses are organised into two operating divisions: 1.2

Economic Value Of Tourism In London Dissertation

Economic Value Of Tourism In London - Dissertation Example Street markets are one of those places that are under the direct influence of such tourists due to direct interaction between tourists, traders, management of such places and other personnel, and social elements involved. They are considered as a source of major revenue generation for the residents of the city and also considered as tourists’ attraction by federal and local authorities. Due to their strategic importance for the cities, these markets undergo changes and developments (at the different pace and of different nature) whereas these changes are promulgated by traders, management of these street markets and local officials in response to purchasing trends of local and foreign customers. However, the research is mainly focused on responses of street markets to tourists visiting these places. The purpose of this research is to examine the effects of tourism on the street markets of London. For the purpose of this research, various street markets like Camden markets, Borough Market, Brick Lane Market and Portobello market have been selected as subjects of the research. Such selection has been made to include markets from different geographic locations. Also, most of these markets have the varied profile in terms of product portfolio, traders, management, history and culture which would be helpful in adding diversity to the research and enhancing generalization of its application on the larger population. It is important to note that street markets are considered as a reflection of local culture. Due to the rich history and their direct relation with local inhabitants, they not only act as a hub of socialization but also act as a source of preservation of local heritage. Furthermore, they also provide the sense of community to those working there and residing at the same place. Street markets also provide a feel of originality and an opportunity for external visitors for getting in touch with local norms and values.

Explain the basic principles of MR image production Essay - 2

Explain the basic principles of MR image production - Essay Example MRI is the safest imaging clinical imaging technique that is used for a variety of medical purposes like differentiating between normal and pathological tissues for diagnosis and tracking dynamic changes in tissue properties over time. Magnetism is physical phenomenon in which materials and moving charged particles can attract or repel other materials or moving charged particles (Ballinger, Intro to MRI, 1998). Magnetism results from moving electric charges or intrinsic spin moments of electrons or nucleis. Spin is a quantum mechanical property. This means that the available spin energy levels are constrained to specific, discrete values. A spin 1/2 particle has only two possible spin states: spin up (+ 1/2) or spin down (- 1/2). The magnetic moment is aligned with the spin. The spin-up and spin-down states are described as being equal in energy, or degenerate. However, if another magnetic field is introduced, the spin-up and spin-down states will be no longer equal in energy. The energy difference introduced by applying the external magnetic field is known as the Zeeman splitting (van Geuns, 1999). This effect is very important in such applications as magnetic resonance imaging. Magnetism can be classified as par amagnetism, diamagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferromagnetism (Ballinger, Intro to MRI, 1998). Having microscopic magnetization, protons within a magnetic field produce wobbling as they spin. The rate of this wobbling or precession constitutes resonance or Larmor frequency (Intro to MRI). The application of a radio frequency pulse at the Larmor frequency causes a change in the distribution of spins with respect to their energy state and precessional phase coherence (Rodr ´Ã„ ±guez, 2003). Practically, it means that If individual nuclei is exposed to RF radiation at the Larmor frequency, nuclei in the lower energy state jumps to the higher energy state (Intro to MRI). Upon

Philosophy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Philosophy - Assignment Example I asked him if he had ever been discriminated against in any way. He said yes, saying that he was often discriminated against because of his race, but more so in public and on the streets than in a work setting. Finally, I asked Mark if he had ever defended himself or someone else against discrimination. He said that when the opportunity arises for him to say something in his or someone else’s defense, he takes it. He further went on to say that he does not want to always open his mouth because he wants to avoid arguments that may arise from his defense. Mark seemed to be against every form of discrimination, believing that everyone deserves a chance to be treated equal, regardless of their race, gender, or sexual orientation. He also acknowledges that while the majority of people have made attempts to live without discrimination, there are still many that believe that they are better than others because of their gender or race. I was pleased to hear that he tries to defend himself and others when possible, and was further pleased when he said that he tried to avoid arguments, as they could only worsen the situation. Lillian is a 26 year old white female. When I asked her if she believed if racial equality exists in our country, she responded by saying not entirely. She went on to explain that while many people treat others equally, there are still incidents that involve the mistreatment of others because of their skin color. I then asked her if gay couples should receive the same treatment and benefits as heterosexual couples, to which she responded with a yes. She believes that if gay couples love the same way as heterosexual couples then they should be allowed the same benefits. I asked Lillian if she thinks that women are treated equally in our society. She simply said no, saying that most people that treat women equally are only doing so

Disadvantages of Using Cell Phone in School Essay Example for Free

Disadvantages of Using Cell Phone in School Essay The initial intention (for giving the handphone) is to provide facilities for us to know where our kids are but we must think twice before doing so. I advice parents to know how to adopt the technology before giving a mobile phone to their child. For instance, you must know if the phone given to your child only has the basics or if its more than that. But I still oppose just giving a basic phone. For me, not giving a phone is the best solution. Having a phone opens up the opportunity for others to do bad things. We want to minimise the risk factors. Problems in school with not doing the homework because of the handphone. I believed that using cell phones during class will cause distraction. It doesnt matter to students that they are not allowed to use their cell phones while they are in class, they do it anyway. They often send text messages to each other and this can distract them from their education, as well as distract the person they are texting, which is likely to be another student. Many people call this the new way of passing notes. Besides that, Another drawback of allowing cell phones is that they can be used to cheat during quizzes and exams. A student could receive silent text messages from a friend that has already taken a certain exam during a test. It is obviously that when students use their cell phones at school, it makes rumors spread faster. This is because, everyone has access to a cell phone and when somebody hears a rumor, they send a text message to their friend to tell them about it, and their friend sends a text message to another friend, and so on. Some also think that the fast spreading of rumors makes it more likely that the rumors will worsen as it is being spread, and that the quicker it spreads, the worse it gets. In some reasons, I felt that cell phones do not improve school safety. For example when there is an emergency, cell phone signals become jammed if everyone attempts to contact people at once. This can make it difficult for teachers to contact the authorities. If students do successfully contact their parents, parents may all rush to the scene, which can conflict with evacuations or other responses. If students contact their parents, parents will all rush to the scene, which brings conflict or other responses. We are more concerned about the bigger consequences of having a handphone like social problems such as bully and harrashment via mobile phones. Student tends to misused the mobile phone, by recording video of students bullying other students. If there are risks involved and you have calculated and you know that the risks wont benefit you, why take the risk? Better not to have the risk at all by not giving them a handphone.

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str Analysis of Affordable Housing in London Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str